Choose one scene or incident Essay

Choose one scene or incident, which seems to you to be of crucial importance in the development of the play. Explain its importance and outline the dramatic consequences of decisions which are made or events which take place. Hamlet is a play which seems to me to have an incident of crucial importance which has dramatic consequences. This incident occurs in Act III, scene III, where the King Claudius is kneeling in thought, too guilty to pray to God. This provides Hamlet with the key opportunity to put an end to his procrastination and kill the King to seek revenge, yet Hamlet does not act. This inaction has many dramatic consequences, one of which eventually is Hamlet’s own death. From the outset, Hamlet has been conveyed as a fairly sensitive young adult, he is very indecisive and for much of the play, struggles between his duty and his conscience. Hamlet is a thinker, and this may in fact, have proved to be his downfall. He finds spontaneity impossible and tortures himself with his thoughts from Act I scene V, where his father tells him of his uncle’s actions and begs for revenge to be sought, until the final scene, where Hamlet finally takes action. Although depressed and upset about his father’s death and his mother’s hasty marriage, Hamlet is completely devastated by the news that his father’s ghost brings him. He was already angry at his mother and disliked his new step father as he saw him to not be fit for comparison with his father â€Å"So excellent a King, that was to this Hyperion to a satyr† This also shows just how high a regard he had for his father, he has obviously acquired this view of perfection where his father is concerned and we cannot help feeling that this must be exaggerated. Hamlet’s initial reaction to the news that his father was murdered was shock and then anger which soon turned into unease about what he should do. Hamlet wishes to seek revenge, but his nature makes this difficult, it simply is not in his nature to plot and kill someone in cold blood. So whilst struggling with this decision he removes himself from suspicion by feigning madness. During this time of thought (mostly during Act II) Hamlet becomes very depressed and moody, he also contemplates suicide on more than one occasion â€Å"To be or not to be† yet cannot tackle his conscious even for a decision over this. Hamlet then, becomes angered by the moving acting of a player, he finds fault in everything about himself and feels cowardly for not yet having taken any action. The only action to result from this is another plan which enables him to procrastinate even further. He decides that he cannot trust this ghost in case it is in fact an evil daemon and puts on a play to find the truth through his uncle’s reaction. This plan works and leads to the incident which could have changed the play entirely. Hamlet feels he cannot kill his uncle at this time, there is dramatic irony in that the reader knows that Claudius is in fact not at prayer, as he feels he cannot talk to God, so Hamlet has really been provided with the perfect opportunity to seek revenge for his father. Yet another reason Hamlet does not act may be the fact he was on his way to see his mother, At one time Hamlet had an incredibly close relationship with his mother, maybe he views trying to convert his mother as higher in priority than seeking revenge. Either way, Hamlet does not act and this leads to many dramatic consequences. Hamlet, then carries onto his mother’s chamber, still with the rage that he felt after the confirmation of his father’s murder. He then has an in depth talk with his mother. Hearing a noise which was made by Polonius who was spying on the conversation, Hamlet strikes without thinking and kills Polonius. Hamlet was able to act here due to the lack of time or thought to allow a conscience decision, this was not a premeditated murder like the one which his father’s ghost asked of him. Hamlet could not have possibly seen the effect that his actions would have. Ophelia, whom he had once cared for, and had also greatly upset during his time of feigning madness, was driven to despair by both the rejection of her lover and death of her father. She firstly went mad and then died as a result of it. She did not fully commit suicide but lost the will to strive to live. When Hamlet found out about Ophelia’s death he was overwhelmed with grief and guilt which he then turned into anger and fought with Laertes in Ophelia’s grave. The killing of Polonius also had a â€Å"knock on effect† with Laretes, he was already irate and vengeful because of his fathers murder, this was greatly heightened when he heard of his sister’s death. With this wish for revenge on Hamlet, Laertes played straight into the hands of Claudius and became nothing more than his pawn. Laertes had a completely different nature from Hamlet in that he found no qualms in acting instantly when he hears of his fathers murder, he had one aim and that is revenge â€Å"To cut his throat i’ the’ church† this contrasts greatly with Hamlet as he wouldn’t even kill Claudius when he suspected he was at prayer. The King hatched a plan to kill Hamlet, he couldn’t do this publicly as he was very popular with the subjects of Denmark. The duel scene is very dramatic and becomes the climax of the play, and this situation would never have been reached the point where practically everyone dies if Hamlet had simply used his opportunity in Act III scene III, and hadn’t hesitated.

Discuss the Impact of Newly Industrialised Countries

Geography Past Paper Question: June 10 * Discuss the impact of Newly Industrialised countries (NICs) on the global economy. The NICs originally attracted a lot of inward investment such as FDI from TNC's which originated from MEDCs. The reasons were that NICs had a large labour force which worked for cheap wages. They also had cheap land, friendly govt legislations, cheap available raw materials and reduced import and export tariffs. The manufacturing industry was first to move and so the NICs became more focused on the secondary sector while the source countries (MEDCs) became tertiary sector economies.This is a disadvantage for most of the MEDCs as they will face periods of structural unemployment where the unskilled workers who could only do manufacturing work will be unable to find jobs. The NICs will have reduced unemployment since a lot of jobs will be made available; requiring low levels of work based skills. On the other hand, due to the lower costs of production for the TNCs , they will be able to sell products for cheaper prices and so this will benefit the global economy.It will also benefit the NICs as they will face increased demand for their services and their population would face glowing job prospects. After a while, the NICs tend to become countries where TNCs originate from. Examples of this could include â€Å"TATA† from India which operates in many sectors such as communications and information technology, engineering, energy, consumer products and chemicals. TATA are now trying to move out of India as it is becoming increasingly expensive to operate in the country. They are moving to other developing countries such as Brazil and Mexico who are now considered as NICs themselves.According to Rostow's model, we can see that most NICs will go through the stages of specialisation and industrialisation after which they will start to not rely on investment and imports from other countries. The Asian tigers have already gone through the stage s and now are able to provide for themselves rather than relying on investment. China and India are currently receiving growing investment but a few TNCs from those countries have started to outsource from other countries who are in the transitional stages such as Brazil.China and India will soon become developed countries such as the Asian Tigers and the focus will then shift to the other ‘BRICS' countries. To conclude, NICs have a largely positive impact on the global economy as they enable TNCs to provide goods and services for cheaper prices to international markets. On the other hand TNCs cause increased unemployment in the country they move production from. However, most of the affects are positive as NICs are allowed to become developed countries in the long term and new countries can then go through the same process such as India and Brazil respectively.

Hrm/300 Managment Overview

Human Resource Management Overview University of Phoenix HRM/300 November 14, 2012 Human Resource Management Overview Organizations require people to run everyday operations, which mean every organization needs human resource management. Today’s paper will discuss what human resource management is, and its primary function within an organization. Every organization has a strategic plan, and human resource management play a critical role in the implementation and production of that plan. Last, will discuss the role of human resource management in an organization’s strategic planning.What is Human Resource Management? According to Reed (2012), from the University of North Carolina Wilmington, Human resource management or HRM, assist in the development and education of people within the organization. The world is constantly changing and evolving each day. Human resource management must understand many aspects of society and the world to properly prepare an organization for those changes. For example, those changes could be: Globalization, technology, workforce diversity, labor shortages, continuous improvement initiatives, etc†¦ Primary Function of HRMThere are many functions of HRM within an organization. However, the primary function of HRM is to increase the effectiveness and contribution ability of its employees, while attaining the goals and objectives of the organization. This could include continuing education, department cross-training, certification processes, diversity training, etc†¦ (DeCenzo & Robbins, 2007). As stated in the aforementioned paragraph, HRM has many roles within an organization. Some of these roles include compensation, benefits, training and development, employee relations, recruiting, and hiring process.Based on the broad spectrum of responsibilities for HRM, it is crucial for one to behold solid communication skills and decision-making capabilities. One may argue it is also critical to behold strong analytical skills and critical thought processes. These are skills one needs to stay competitive in today’s business world (DeCenzo & Robbins, 2007). HRM’s Role in an Organization’s Strategic Plan After generations of arguing, there is still an ongoing debate about the role HRM play in an organization’s strategic planning process. Some senior management believes HRM’s role is solely as a compliance function.Other senior management looks to HRM as a consultative service. No matter one’s stance on this debate, there is no denying the impact HRM has on the strategic plan of an organization (DeCenzo & Robbins, 2007). HRM professionals continue to fight for the proverbial â€Å"seat at the table† in this debate. HRM has nothing to worry about in most organizations. Successful organizations rarely develop a strategy involving human capital without the consideration of HRM. Even more important, no strategic plan is successful without effective recruiti ng, deployment, and development of human capital.This is exactly why HRM should have a â€Å"seat at the table† at all times (DeCenzo & Robbins, 2007). HRM provides value at every level of the strategic planning cycle by demonstrating knowledge, alignment, success, and vision of the organization. HRM must recruit each candidate that best fits the needs of the business. If the business is suffering or needs improvements in a specific area, HRM will recruit to fill that position based on specific criteria the business is looking for to further advance its position within the competitive market.If HRM does not function at a high level within this one function, the entire business is at risk (DeCenzo & Robbins, 2007). Conclusion Exploiting opportunities and identifying goals are the two most important aspects of strategic planning. HRM plays a critical role during this process, while limiting and considering all associated risks. HRM helps align goals and initiatives while aligni ng all necessary resources to deliver the desired results of its key stakeholders. HRM should be involved in every step of every process. If one can execute successfully these uiding principles throughout each phase of strategic planning, one’s future is bright. Involving HRM will strengthen the position of the strategy by providing fact-based insight to stakeholders. In time, HRM will align the necessary resources to achieve the initiatives and goals of management and the strategic plan. References DeCenzo, D. , & Robbins, S. (2007). Fundamentals of Human Resource Management (9th ed. ). John Wiley and Sons. Reed, D. (2012). University of North Carolina Wilmington. What is human resource management. Retrieved from http://uncw. edu/career/humanresources. html

Economic Value Added Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Economic Value Added - Assignment Example There are two main types of financing for a business, debt and equity financing. When accountants calculate net income, they deduct the interest expense (which is the cost of the debt capital). However, the cost of the equity is not taken into account. Therefore, the net income exaggerates the ‘true’ net income in economic terms. This flaw is overcome by the EVA method. A positive EVA indicates that value is being created i.e. value of the company increases by that amount. On the other hand, a negative EVA indicates that value is decreased and the company is now worth less than the initial capital employed (which is the assets from which earnings for the year are generated). (Russell) A value of zero means a sufficient achievement because shareholders have earned a return that just compensates for their risk. The term â€Å"Operating Capital† used in the EVA formula on the last page accounts for the interest-bearing debt, preferred and the common stock used to acquire the company’s net operating assets. In easy terms, it is the capital which was used to acquire net plant and equipment plus the net current assets. EVA = (Operating capital) * (ROIC – WACC) i.e. a firm adds value if it’s ROIC – Return on Invested Capital is greater than the WACC – Weighted average Cost of Capital. However, if WACC goes beyond the ROIC, then new investments in the operating capital will actually reduce the firm’s value. EVA is an estimate of a business’s true economic profit for the year, and if differs sharply for accounting profit. Accounting profit is basically determined without imposing any charge for the cost of equity capital and is therefore an overstatement in economic terms. However, EVA determines the residual income after accounting for all the cost of capital (debt and equity both) and provides a much better performance measure to the stakeholders. Misra, Anil and Kanwal Anil. "Economic Value Added (EVA) as the most

Competing Through Marketing Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Competing Through Marketing - Assignment Example zed basis to a point where additional promotions expenditures are already yielding diminishing returns; an agreement that has been spread all over states that markets should form good foundations that will help and bring forth successful marketing strategies and major activities (Baines, Fill and Page 2009, p217). The main purpose of market segmentation is basically to leverage scarce resources; more so it ensures that the major elements of marketing mix, distribution, promotions, products and prices are designed in a very special way that helps them meet the particular desired needs of different various customer groups. Organizations have very finite resources that do not allow them to produce possible products basically for all the people at all the times; normally the best thing that they aim at is basically to provide selected offerings for the selected groups of people and this is mostly most of the times. The process permits the organizations to focus on the particular consumer’s needs, in the most effective and efficient mode. The concept of market segmentation is associated with the product differentiation. Aiming at different market segments requires adaptation to a number of variations that need to be offered to satisfy those segments. If one adapts to a different version of providence, this may appease the different market segments (Baines, Fill and Page 2009, p218). A good example is the section of fashion retailing in which one might adapt clothing range so that the skirts are the most colorful, utilize lighter fabrics, and a very small hemline – this fashion style is most likely to appeal the younger women. If one decides to appeal the older women, then one might be required to change the skirts styling by utilizing darker heavier fabrics which have a long hemline. This is the strategy that was used by Marks and Spencer (M&S) to attract the young female shopper to their M&S stores and offer competition directly with Next and Debenhams for the

Government 1 Dissertation Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Government 1 - Dissertation Example Thus, if I discover that the government might be monitoring my e-mail and internet security, I would not only reduce the information I reveal on the internet, but I would also reduce the frequency at which I make use of the internet and try other means of communication. Freedom of expression should be allowed on the internet and there should not be any restriction on this (Atallah, 2010). This is due the fact that the internet has now become the main medium that people air their views, hence telling people that there is a limit to the way they can express themselves is like a violation on their fundamental human right. However, when the issue of the restriction of freedom of expression arises, there would be serious problems on the types of expression that should be restricted. There would be no standard yardstick as to the kind of things that people should be expected to talk about on the internet. Thus, it is not in any way desirable to restrict freedom of expression in any instanc e as people should be free to say anything they like on the internet. Reference Atallah, M. (2010). Privacy Enhancing Technologies: 10th International Symposium, PETS 2010, July 21-23, 2010, Berlin, Germany, Proceedings. New York: Springer.

Ethics of Society Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Ethics of Society - Assignment Example Progress is a very important part of success, there is no success without progression in life. One has to understand that whatever we do in life has to be of a progressive nature and should not be static. Once we start doing things to our liking we should define set standard goals and strive to achieve those goals, and only after we achieve those goals along the lines of progression could we say that we have been successful in our endeavors. I am still in the stage of achieving my goals, and therefore I cannot classify myself as a successful person. However, whatever interim goals I had made have been fulfilled by the hard work and therefore at this stage, I can say I am successful with what I have done and with what I had got to achieve those standards. The United States is already a successful country. However, there are a lot of contingencies in the country which have to be corrected in order to make it an even more successful country. Those contingencies are the current lackluster economic condition which the country has been suffering from. The country needs more jobs and for that, the Government has to step in and make more jobs for the people. The entire manufacturing base has shifted from the United States to China and that is a cause for concern since the products which are designed in that country are now being manufactured somewhere else. Therefore for the US to be a very successful country in the future and sustain its success it has to shift the policy of outsourcing the jobs to other countries in Asia and focus on its own middle-class people who are ready and prepared to work in the factories for hours to earn some money. The middle class is now losing the focus in the country and that is why the country’s econo mic position is now deteriorating really fast. Law of attraction talks about the levels of energy and the vibes around us which we have to grab hold of and fell it along with the fact that we have to take in the vibes and give out vibes with the perspective of attracting the attention of the other individual. Law of attraction aims at understanding our flow of energy when we meet new people and how we use this energy to get the positive vibes of the people which we aim for whenever we are in a group having a conversation with people or when we are meeting new people with respect to socializing. The idea does not conflict with my values of religion since religion does not come in the way of the law of attraction. However, on the other hand, religion has its own definition of the law of attraction which is to spread good energy among the society which is pretty similar and identical to the law of attraction explained in the movie â€Å"The Secret†.            

Comparing Senator Kelly Ayotte and Senator Joe Donnelly Essay

Comparing Senator Kelly Ayotte and Senator Joe Donnelly - Essay Example Ayotte and Donnelly have different leadership traits and hold different political ideologies. There approaches on national matters take a different dimension. Ayotte develops her approach based on bipartisan approaches while Donnelly concentrates on advocating for his party’s political and economic stands. This indicates the two develops their arguments and public agenda. Ayotte advocates for national agendas on grounds that there need to be a sober mind when it comes to security and economic policies (Appendix I). Ayotte being a republican, she has played an important role in sponsoring security and economical related bills in the senate. This indicates her concern on matters affecting the public. Donnelly on the other hand concentrated on his party’s policy in that most of his statements are geared towards driving the Democrat’s stands on key national issues. The two differ in the way they present their agenda top the public. Ayotte has been actively involved in senate debates compared to Donnelly. She has been involved in more senate committees than Donnelly. She represents the change advocated by Thomas and Wilcox (2014) in the 21st century. There active roles in politics and public administration. The subordinate roles played in previous administration and transformed into active members in society. The role played Ayotte surpasses Donnelly’s role in 2015 senate and house committees.

The Underlying Causes of Women Empowerment as in a Management Level Literature review

The Underlying Causes of Women Empowerment as in a Management Level across the past decade in the United Kingdom - Literature review Example This research methodology is designed to understand and gauge the reasons for increased women empowerment across managerial levels in the United Kingdom. Although laws and regulations have been in place for quite some time, research has showed that there has been a spike in women’s involvement in managerial position in the United Kingdom. This comprehensive research methodology provides a brief overview of the hypothesis, the research strategy and design for the research. The research methods that will be employed to gather the necessary information, followed by the data analysis methods, will also be discussed. At the end of the module, a brief statement about ethical issues at hand and a conclusive statement will be provided. WOMEN EMPOWERMENT AT A MANAGERIAL LEVEL IN UNITED KINGDOM: United Kingdom has been considered as a pioneering modern society that has embraced the changing societies and ideas; they are the prime example of a modern society. For the literature review to be objective and the research to be authentic, the sources that were used for the gathering of the theoretical material was done from scholarly articles and researches that have been conducted in the past. These researches substantiate the theory that there has been an increase in the development of women empowerment, especially in the Managerial level positions in the United Kingdom. ... Women were not considered for strategically important positions in the past. The race towards the top for the women was slow and steady. Women have now reached an epitome of success; 15 out of 500 fortune companies have women CEO’s and this figure are expected to improve with each passing year (CNNMoney, 2010). In order to understand the causes and reasons for the increase in women empowerment, researches have been conducted in the past to see if literacy levels, understanding from the other gender, increase in the women’s career oriented personalities, their likelihood to come back to work after marriage and maternity. Research has shown that the increase in the inclination shown from the women to develop their career as seriously as men do, has increased the level of their competency and has made the opposite gender notice the increase in managerial capability. The work life balance of women has definitely increased over the years, now that they are given flexible wor k hours, and presence of child care options etc. This inclines the women to come back after childbirth and work full time, a phenomena that was not present about 20 years ago. Women working full time would become homemakers and stay back to take care of their children, leaving their careers behind. This is definitely changing today, increasing women participation in the managerial layer (Walby, 2002). There still exists a perception in the minds of the male gender, about the way women handle situations in managerial positions. It has been proven that women have a different management style than men and men mostly do not agree with that style as being as effective as their own. A recent study by Harvard Business Review has shown the majority of the male gender

Recording, Analysing & Using HR Information Essay Example for Free

Recording, Analysing Using HR Information Essay This document will review the organisation’s approach to collecting, storing and using HR data. It will cover why the organisation needs to collect HR data, the different types of data that is collected and how it is beneficial to HR, different storing methods and their benefit and UK legislation relating to the recording, storage and access to HR data. HR data contains highly sensitive information such as salary, pension information, grievances, and basic personnel information (name, address, and telephone details). A fine can be enforced up to ? 500. 000 in an organisation is found to have breached data protection. Data Management: There are many different reasons why an organisation needs to collect HR data from ensuring legal requirements are meet, to provide relevant information in decision making and planning, health and safety, protection from claims, working time directive. If used correctly it can serve as a very useful management tool. Holding recruitment new starter paperwork that contains a national insurance number and passport picture is essential to proving someone is eligible to work in the UK, without proof of eligibility the organisation can face a fine. Inductions record when an employee has been through the necessary requirements to do their role such as a health and safety course, and manual handling. This can protect the organisation if a claim was to rise with regards to injury or illness. If an employee raises a grievance as they have reached an unacceptable level of sickness. We can use the data held on our systems with regard to absences to prove when they have been in work and for how long, if we keep meeting notes we can also prove how we evaluated the situation and the action that was taken which can be used if it went to a tribunal, or if HR was looking at process management. The Inland Revenue can request data at any point from mileage, expenses, salary, national insurance, therefore it is essential we keep records such as P60, payslips, expense reports so this data can be crossed checked and proof that we have paid an employee correctly. Data Storage: From the moment an application is received to the moment an employee receives their P45 an organisation holds data. We call this the ‘Life Cycle of and Employee. ’ There are two methods in which we store data: Manual Records: This can be filing cabinets and folders held within storage cupboards. His is kept mainly as a backup should electronic systems fail or where original documents must be retained as a legal requirement such as a maternity MATB1 form. The benefits of this are the data is easily accessible and will not be prone to any electrical power failures or computerised scams which corrupt data. However there is the risk of keys being lost or data being seen by unauthorised personnel if it is not put away correctly. To prevent such occurrence a clear desk policy could be implemented. Systems: This can be excel spreadsheets that hold reports and link to other systems such as SAP, which is where we hold employee information such as address, salary, pension, hours worked, absences. The benefits of this method means you do not have to search numerous files as the data is held in one place, which is useful if an employee data request is received. As a sustainable organisation it benefits the environment as we don’t use paper. Documents are easily maintained and can be moved to different servers or USB devices for storage.

Media Technologies And Journalism Media Essay

Media Technologies And Journalism Media Essay In the second half of the twentieth century and early of the twenty-first, along with the advancement of new media technology, we have witnessed the dramatic transformation of journalism. There can be no denying that the technological revolution has exerted far reaching influences on news journalism and its production. In 2000, Pavlik (p.229) has asserted: â€Å" Journalism has always been shaped by technology†. Pavlik as well as many academics in the field of mass communication believe that the profound changing of journalism are technologically determined. However, there are some researchers who criticise the idea of technological determinism. They argue that technologies not only transformed journalism but also were shaped and operated in the news production process. As Cottle (1999,p.22) has stated: â€Å"news technologies of news production are in fact socially and culturally shaped and embedded within corporate and professional contexts and practices†. It could be argued that the relationship between technology and journalism is not simply a cause and effect relationship, in fact, they changed and determined each other. The aim of this essay is to examine the interaction relationship between technology and journalism, with a particular focus on how new media technologies transformed news journalism. This research paper will begin by consider the impact of technology on journalism, and then account for the way that technologies are operated and integrated in the news production process. In the second section, the proliferation of the internet and blogs will be taken as prime examples of technological advancement which has offered opportunities as well as challenges to journalists and news organisations. Finally, the assignment will discuss whether technological changes and the adoption of new technology have led to the improvement or deterioration of journalisms quality. 1. The interaction relationship between news media technologies and journalism For the purpose of this assignment, this section will briefly introduce the theory of technology determinism as well as critical arguments of modern social scientists. The impact of new media technologies on news journalism will be examined and references are made to the work of academic in this field. Furthermore, evidence is provided in order to account for the way technologies are shaped and integrated in news production process. 1.1. The impact of new media technologies on news journalism According to Pavlik (2000,p.229), journalism are transformed by technology in four broad areas: practices of journalists, news content, the organization of the newsroom, and the relationship between and among news organisations, journalists and their many publics. â€Å" Technological changes have had an impact above all on the immediacy and availability of journalism as it has proliferated as a mode of communication† (Conboy,2004,p.205). 1.2. Technologies are shaped and integrated on news production process With a critical argument, Cottle (1999) views technology as a â€Å"creature of our own making â€Å", in his words, â€Å"which inhabits, was born out of, remains dependent on, and is socialised and put to work within determinant social environment† (p.23). In his study of â€Å" A combination of political regulatory change and the arrival of the new media organizations and products has introduced considerable competition into the broadcast environment..this competition appears to be the immediate cause of organisational and technological change† (Ursell, 2001,p.194). New operations have adopted new technologies with different degrees of extent and intensity (Ursell). Consequences for journalist: demand for and pressure on journalistic staff have increased. 2. Technological changes and the quality of journalism 2.1. The internet and blogs: a nascent phenomenon Internet: how it changes the newswork -> journalist practice(Pavlik), mot-used new resources for finding imformation(Garrison), journalist easily interact with audiences Define blog Bloggers 2.2. Quality of journalism in era of new media technologies: deterioration or improvement Though there can be no denying that the appearance of the internet and blogs has changed news journalism in many ways, it is now essential to consider whether it is better or worse journalism. Thus, this question has been the subject of a great deal of research. Ursell (2001) in his study of Convergence: â€Å" I assert that convergence merely holds the promise of a better, more efficient, more democratic medium for journalism and the public in the twenty-first century† (Pavlik,2001,p.xiii) Multi-skilling: High-Speed: â€Å"Speed is in danger of becoming the ultimate aim of journalism. The post-telegraph compulsion to beat competitors to a story, accelerate by new technologies, can mean it becomes more important to be first than to provide an adequate assessment of context† (Conboy,2004,p.207) â€Å" The pace of breaking news drives the possibility of in-depth analysis further down the line† (Conboy, 2004,p.207) â€Å"All of this compromises the incredible speed and technological sophistication of the journalism produced as it is often lacking in analytical depth or political variety† (Conboy,2004,p.207) Journalists who are under the pressure of becoming multi-skilled and technically competent to produce multiple media production do not have much â€Å"opportunities for creative reflection or innovation†(Cottle,1999). To illustrate this point, Cottle(1999,p.41) has quoted a statement of one broadcast journalist: â€Å"We dont have time to be creative. Its not that the equipment will not let us be more creative as we used to be†. Pavlik (2001) states that, on the plus side, new media technologies has offered potential for improving quality of journalism as well as helped journalist do their jobs more effectively. In other words, journalists can use new technologies to create much more â€Å"engaging, navigable, contextualized† news productions which reflect everyday life more â€Å"accurately, fully, and dynamically†(Pavlik,2001,p.xvi). However, on the negative side, â€Å"We journalists are no longer the gate keepers in the market place of ideas. The doors have been flung wide open by the egalitarian nature of the Internet and when you look at the big picture you see chaos. You see a medium in its infancy, howling and kicking against the limitations of the world into which it was born. Conclusion To bring this paper to a close, I summarise the main points here: new media technologies have transformed news journalism and its production, at the same time are shaped and operated in news production process. This essay set out to examine the intertwining relationship between technology and journalism, consider it in both positive and negative side. In the first section, it produced some insights into how journalism is influenced by technology and answered the question of how technology are shaped and integrated in news production process. In an attempt to demonstrate this point, evidence was presented relating to the change in news-making activities of journalist in the era of the internet and blogs. Finally, the evidence presented in this paper suggested that technological changes have had diverse impact on the quality of journalism. In other words, technological innovations lead to improvement as well as deterioration of journalism performance and output.

The Great Depression in the United States Essay -- essays research pap

The United States? Downfall Screams, tears, and cries for help were all part of America's downfall. From 1929 through 1941 there was only one thing that was plentiful, sorrow. During this time the United States was faced with another obstacle. It changed America in many ways. One hard struggle lead to the next. The later events all started with the crash of the stock market. This period can only be explained by its name. So, the stock market crash in the United States caused businesses to close, banks to fall, and many people to become unemployed, causing this twelve-year period of suffering to become known as ?The Great Depression?. As stated by Nelson Cary in his overview of the Great Depression, ?the core of the problem was the immense disparity between the country?s productive capacity and the ability of people to consume?. There were more introductions of new items in the United States than before, during, or after World War I. The Government had tremendous debt from this war. The economy suffered greatly during this time because of the immense deficits left from the war. The farmers and the wage earners received printed money that actually had no true value. The overproduction made the lower class, such as farmers and trade smiths, become part of the higher class. Therefore there was not a balance between lower and higher, thus making the market tip. The bottom line was that paper money at that time had no real value. So, even if you had money, people would not take it because there was not a balance for the banks to stand on. Most people then were categorized to be in the lower class. So now, once again there was not a balance between lower and higher class. All people experienced suffering. ?Broth... ...bout 800,000 people left Arkansas, Texas, Missouri, and Oklahoma. The government then abandoned the AAA act when the tax on food processors was ruled to be unconstitutional. As you can see, the United States of America has changed greatly since the Great Depression. Our idea of what we need and what is poor has changed greatly since this period. This twelve year time period shows how things can change, and how people can adapt to economic crisis when they are forced to. Without our fall, other countries may have experienced this. So, this period of American history still serves as a lesson today. As quoted by many people, ?If we do not know our history, we are destined to repeat it?. In conclusion, you can see the Great Depression caused great calamity and sorrow, but in the end, it was one of the best learning experiences the United States has ever seen.

Chinas Rise Essays -- Chinese History, Mao

China’s last dynasty ended one hundred years ago, and the last great dynasty ended one thousand years ago. (Dharmananda)Nonetheless, China is rising out of the ashes in modern times. China became a communist nation in nineteen hundred and forty nine. (Woods, 2009) With the help of the U.S.S.R., China made multiple nuclear weapons in the nineteen fifties. This sparked the start of China’s military modernization and their reemergence to the international community. China’s international policy is to promote world peace. They hope to do so by staying neutral and only defending their interests, and not instigating. The only contradiction in China’s policy is that it interferes with Tibet and Taiwan. If Taiwan ever tries declaring independence, China will declare war on them and it just so happens the United States is an ally of Taiwan. The global superpower of today is the United States of America. (Vale, 2010) The United States has the strongest military for ce in the world, with the most funding of any country by billions of dollars. The United States is also China’s number one trading partner, so if China were to oppose the United States, China’s economy would crumble. China’s rise is not a threat to global security. Pre-communist China was a nation in turmoil. In the nineteen forties the country was in a civil war, between the Nationalist’s and Communist’s. China’s economy was in shambles. The weapons that the Communist’s used were primarily from the U.S.S.R. and the Nationalist’s used weapons from the U.S.A. (Global Security, 2005) When the Communist’s won the war, the U.S.S.R. continued to support the Communist regime of China. In the nineteen fifties China began their nuclear weapons program, building multiple nuclear bombs... ...ates they would lose their number one trading partner by almost $70 billion dollars. (Prasad & Gu, 2009)The loss of the United States would devastate the Chinese economy. China at this point in time isn’t ready to oppose the United States. China’s rise is not a threat to global security. They promote peace and international development. Their international policy is not a threat to global security. The only issue they have is if Taiwan ever declares independence. If China declares war on Taiwan then the United States would declare war on China. Global security relies on the United States for their military force. If China were to oppose the United States they would lose. Since China depends on United States for trade they wouldn’t go to war against them. Global security is not threatened by China’s rise because China and the United States depend on each other.

Liberty Cabbage: Culture and Propaganda Essay -- Media Government Pape

Liberty Cabbage: Culture and Propaganda I happened to live in two countries with opposite political regimes – socialism in the USSR and democracy in the USA. I was growing up in the USSR, usually finding myself obedient to the will of the ruling Communist Party, sincerely thinking (as well as many people of my age) that my country has the most humane regime in the whole world. When I got older and the Iron Curtain fell, the unadorned reality confronted me: the Soviet Union was not a peace-loving democratic country but a totalitarian regime with a explicit goal of replicating itself all over the world; in short, a monster in sheep’s clothing. What made me believe back then that my former country had such a perfect regime? A one-word answer is: propaganda. The Soviet government skillfully manipulated cultural values of the Russian people to create an illusion that we live in the country of our dreams. The bravest of us allowed ourselves to have another opinion. They listened to Radio Liberty and dreamed of livi ng in the United States (although nobody expected the Soviet regime to fall). What is it like, we wondered, to live in a country where the government does not feed deliberate lies to its own people distorting cultural traditions and history? I dreamed about living in the United States because it was our guiding light to a real democracy. However, as it seems now, the government of the United States, just like the Communist Party in the USSR, plays on cultural values of its people to make them agree to the agenda of the dominant political and social structures. The majority of American people would argue that they are absolutely independent in their opinions, that the United States is a leading democratic country in th... ...oam. Interview. Redeye Collective. By Chris Spannos. 24 May 2002. Filatov, S. â€Å"Thrown Out on the Street.† Pravda 10 Dec. 1979: 5. Grigoriev, Oleg. A Bird In a Cage. Saint Petersburg: Ivan Limbach, 1997 Hunt, Michael H. Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy. Yale: Yale UP, 1987. Nunberg, Geoff. †The language wars.† Fresh Air. NPR. WHYY. Philadelphia. 23 Apr. 2003. Operation Iraqi Freedom. The White House. 21 Apr. 2003. Parenti, Michael. â€Å"Methods of Media Manipulation.† The Humanist 57 (1997): 5-7. ISU Expanded Academic ASAP. 22 Apr. 2003. Schabner, Dean. â€Å"Conservative Backlash.† ABCNews.com. 12 March 2003. 22 Apr. 2003. Liberty Cabbage: Culture and Propaganda Essay -- Media Government Pape Liberty Cabbage: Culture and Propaganda I happened to live in two countries with opposite political regimes – socialism in the USSR and democracy in the USA. I was growing up in the USSR, usually finding myself obedient to the will of the ruling Communist Party, sincerely thinking (as well as many people of my age) that my country has the most humane regime in the whole world. When I got older and the Iron Curtain fell, the unadorned reality confronted me: the Soviet Union was not a peace-loving democratic country but a totalitarian regime with a explicit goal of replicating itself all over the world; in short, a monster in sheep’s clothing. What made me believe back then that my former country had such a perfect regime? A one-word answer is: propaganda. The Soviet government skillfully manipulated cultural values of the Russian people to create an illusion that we live in the country of our dreams. The bravest of us allowed ourselves to have another opinion. They listened to Radio Liberty and dreamed of livi ng in the United States (although nobody expected the Soviet regime to fall). What is it like, we wondered, to live in a country where the government does not feed deliberate lies to its own people distorting cultural traditions and history? I dreamed about living in the United States because it was our guiding light to a real democracy. However, as it seems now, the government of the United States, just like the Communist Party in the USSR, plays on cultural values of its people to make them agree to the agenda of the dominant political and social structures. The majority of American people would argue that they are absolutely independent in their opinions, that the United States is a leading democratic country in th... ...oam. Interview. Redeye Collective. By Chris Spannos. 24 May 2002. Filatov, S. â€Å"Thrown Out on the Street.† Pravda 10 Dec. 1979: 5. Grigoriev, Oleg. A Bird In a Cage. Saint Petersburg: Ivan Limbach, 1997 Hunt, Michael H. Ideology and U.S. Foreign Policy. Yale: Yale UP, 1987. Nunberg, Geoff. †The language wars.† Fresh Air. NPR. WHYY. Philadelphia. 23 Apr. 2003. Operation Iraqi Freedom. The White House. 21 Apr. 2003. Parenti, Michael. â€Å"Methods of Media Manipulation.† The Humanist 57 (1997): 5-7. ISU Expanded Academic ASAP. 22 Apr. 2003. Schabner, Dean. â€Å"Conservative Backlash.† ABCNews.com. 12 March 2003. 22 Apr. 2003.

Analysis of Robert Frost On A Tree Fallen Across the Road Essay

In Robert Frost’s English sonnet, â€Å"On a Tree Fallen across the Road†, Frost uses imagery, alliteration, metaphors, personification, and symbols to portray his theme. Frost uses all of these literate devices to bring out his point in the poem; overcoming obstacles. He believes that we will always face struggles in life and come across unexpected surprises that may or may not be good. This does not mean that this will stop us in our tracks, but will help shape us into better human beings by giving us choices. He also believes that as humans we have hidden in us the motivation to strive to get what we want in life and where we want to be by making these difficult decisions. The way Frost portrays this main theme in a 14 line poem about a fallen tree helps readers see that the poem is actually not about a tree, but overcoming life’s important decisions. In the first stanza Frost sets the setting with imagery of â€Å"The tree the tempest with a crash of wood† with alliteration in the words ‘tree’ and ‘tempest’. The imagery Frost conveys is of a fallen tree that has been knocked over by a violent, windy storm in which paints a picture in the head of the readers of a dirt road with a giant, dead oak tree strewn across it. The road symbolizes life and as you go through this path of life you are faced with these obstacles and choices of whether or not to change course or push through. The last line of the stanza is saying that these obstacles are not there to make us struggle, but they are there to help us find out who we are as people. I think that Frost used a tree as the main symbol for the poem because when people think of fallen trees they think of a giant tree that when it has fallen down it is hard to move or even get around without deciding what action to do next. That does not mean that it cannot be done though; just like our choices we face may seem impossible at the time, but when we just take a step back we can see that there is more than one option than just giving up. The second stanza goes on to explore the idea of how people are faced with tough decisions on a daily basis, but it is up to us to decide which path we take. Frosts uses the metaphor of Mother Nature, ‘she’, trying to halt our driving by putting a tree in the road, but in deeper meaning Frost is saying that there are many challenges out there that just show up in front of us and the only thing we can do is survive it. He also uses personification with that same line by introducing ‘she’, Mother Nature, will make things happen, but Mother Nature is not a real person and cannot do something like that. This adds to the sonnet by helping people connect and imagine a big snow storm that can temporarily stop someone in their tracks before it melts or someone clears the snow. Frost then goes back to the image of the tree â€Å"Debating what to do without an ax. †; the ax symbolizes a device that is not readily at your service. Whenever you come across a fallen tree there is no guarantee that you will have an ax with you, so you must improvise and decide how you will move past this tree. This is parallel to the idea of not having the best option presented in front of you when you are forced to make a choice, but if you dig deeper then you may find the best option that will work for you, just like finding a new path around the tree. During the last stanza Frost goes back to ‘she’, Mother Nature, â€Å"knowing obstruction† that the attempt is fruitless to stop the will of the people’s journey. This is where he backs up his whole idea of not being presented with a solution â€Å"We will not be put off the final goal We have it hidden in us to attain†, no matter what obstruction we are faced with, choice we have to make, or obstacle we are stuck with, we will always find a way to get past it because it is hidden in us. Another metaphor is used when Frost writes â€Å"Not though we have to seize earth by the pole†, not as in we literally need to grab the pole of the earth, but by grabbing life by the reigns and taking charge of your own life and steering it onto the path that you want. Frost uses the pole of the earth as an image for the readers to envision because the earth is massive compared to us and no matter the size of earth or the problem we can grab ahold of it and lead it in the direction that we want. Frost then ends his sonnet with a couplet that reiterates the idea of not giving up on overcoming the difficult obstacles. People get tired of going around in aimless circles, trying to find the best option and falling short of their goal, but what they really need to do is just focus on what is right in front of them and ‘steer straight’ as Frost would say. Sometimes people need to take a step back and actually look at the problem that is right in front of them because they can get too caught up in the idea of finding a solution and not thinking about the actual problem at hand. Frost uses multiple metaphors and imagery to help his readers envision exactly what he is trying to convey. Even the title â€Å"On a Tree Fallen across the Road† is imagery. As soon as readers read it they envision a giant oak tree blocking their path and their first instinct is to ask themselves, â€Å"What do I do now? † Some may cut it up and use the wood for other use and some might just turn around and find a different way to go to their destination. When you are faced with multiple different options it is hard to decide what to do, but Frost believes that no matter what Mother Nature throws at us we can handle it because we have the ability hidden in us that comes out when we need it to.

Globalization and genocide Essay

The twentieth century has seen a lot of inventions come into being, from the invention of the engine, to the manufacturing of airplanes. Then there came the aspect of globalization. The world that was so large started shrinking on a daily basis until finally, borders seemed to have evaporated into thin air even between continents. Today, a person may be in London in the morning and in the evening he is in Washington. Communication has also been made easier and more efficient in such a way that you can talk to a person who is thousands of miles away, as if you are talking to the person next door. The world has become a small community. Successes and failures However, there are shortcomings that have come with globalization. Lechner and Boli (2004) in their book The Globalization Reader argues that while there has been shortcoming of globalization because of the strain it has exerted on the environment thereby degrading it. While the countries all over the world have been working to see their economies develop, this has been at the expense of the environment. One of these causes of environmental degradation according to their argument is the destroying of the natural environment. Large tracts of forest covered land are destroyed each year leaving the land bare and in a few years no longer unproductive. This, they argue, is not the only cause of environmental degradation. Another cause is the releasing of harmful chemicals into the environment. Example is the Chernobyl nuclear accident. After this accident, there were many nuclear substances that were released into the environment and over the years have caused cancer. Fossil fuels have also contributed greatly to the destruction of the environment. While these have provided fuel for industries, carbon dioxide emissions has been on the rise thereby causing global warming. Are there ways and means to reverse the current trends of environmental degradation in order to make secure our future? However, despite all this destruction, there has been an effort to try and slow down if not to completely stop the rate at which the environment is destroyed. Whereas the governments have not been keen enough to conserve the environment, Lechner and Boli (2004) argue that there are environmentalists who have rallied for conservation of this precious environment. In 1992, Rio de Janeiro Declaration on Environment and Development proposed that, for a meaningful development to be achieved, environment conservation must come first. There are also who have argued that for environment to be conserved especially in poor nations, the rich nations must cancel their debts since the small governments spend all their earnings paying debts at the expense of local development, thus forcing it people to solely rely on an already deprived land hence furthering the effects of environmental destruction. Others have used all their minerals on debts without caring much on the effects this has on the environment. There are also organizations that were formed to champion for the protection of the environment. Their call is on the political class to make their priorities right by spending less on military and more on environment protection, not just for this generation but also for future generation. Issues of poverty have been cited as the biggest enemy to the protection of the environment. An example is of Mau forest in Kenya. While this forest has been the water catchments and the source of many rivers in Kenya, it faces the danger of being destroyed because of human activities. At the moment, part of the forest has been inhabited by people who are poor and therefore not willing to move out. The government of Kenya on the other hand is also unable to settle these people elsewhere since it doesn’t have resources. The neighboring nations namely Uganda and Tanzania face the same plight as Kenya and cannot help the Kenyan government yet these rivers drain in Lake Victoria which is shared among them. These activities that have affected a nation environmentally do not affect just one person. The Mau forest in Kenya is a good example. If the future of Mau forest is not solved, eventually, Egypt which doesn’t even border Kenya will be affected since it depends on water from Lake Victoria through river Nile for its irrigation. Human beings faced the danger of extinction on a daily, more so from environmental degradation. Nevertheless, it is possible to have a better world. A world where pollution is controlled and excellent environment that is not contaminated is the ultimate choice for everyone. There have been meetings called by different people all over the world to fight for the right to live in a non polluted environment. An urge to have those that are considered the minority in the society to participate in the process of policy making has been on the rise. Is it possible, when we are united together as a people, to fight for our environment? Genocide The effects of globalization have not been felt in the environmental circle alone. Social life in many places throughout the world has been altered because of globalization. According to Gellately and Kiernan (2003) examines the atrocities that have been committed against humanity, some among them committed by the ‘civilized’ as they championed for globalization. For example, there were mass murders that were committed at Guatemala, sponsored by the US government. In this revolution, the Mayan community was massacred and the world kept mum. Even when as a commission to investigate these events was setup, their report did not reveal the motives behind these killings, and the people behind it. The Mayan people are not the only ones that have been affected. Yugoslavia in 1991 faced genocide whereby a minority group was targeted and massacred. Politics and cruelty has been the order of the day. Politicians have been known to use people to get into position and then turn against these people. These acts of brutality are yet to end. Societies throughout the world still experience mass murders in their midst. Technology, which is supposed to ease the way life, is now being used against people. US is not spared either. September 11 attacks proved that people are willing to go all the way to destroy others. While we may toy around with the idea of whether to reevaluate our stand towards globalization or not, we must always remember that a time is coming when we shall not enjoy the relaxation our beaches offer us as we do today. At that time, there will be no trees for our wildlife and therefore no rain. For countries in Sub Saharan Africa, this will mean that there will be no food since these communities have always depended on rain for their agricultural activities. Just as a reminder, that time is already at hand. We are already seeing the effects of globalization on our environment. Yet, the question we ask ourselves is, ‘Are we ready to shove the idea of globalization beneath the carpet and look for a new alternative? ’ Some of the greatest crimes against humanity were committed at a time when we considered the world to be on a highway to becoming one community with no barriers. That was in the mid 1990s, a genocide that left many dead with many other maimed. Yet, the global community never spoke a single word until it was all over. According to Gellately and Kiernan (2003), these acts of brutality have often been sparked by oppression through the years by those who are powerful. After many years of oppression, those who have been oppressed pour their anger on those who are helpless and vulnerable and therefore cannot defend themselves. In the end, we witness the kind of crimes like those that happened in Rwanda (p 375). We cannot also ignore the fact that technological advances in warfare have also been the cause of genocides in our communities. Cases in point are the Nazis in Germany; the use of poisonous gases against the Kurds in Iraq; the September 11 attacks on US soil. These have all employed the use of technology to perpetrate crime. Thus, the globalization that was supposed to bring us together has also been the source of death and segregation in our communities. Are we as human being going through a transition that is changing us for the worse i. e. turning us against each other? Is globalization therefore the cause of genocide or a solution to eradicating genocide in the current world? Are we our own enemies? References Lechner, F & Boli, J. (2004). The globalization reader. New Jersey, USA: Published by Wiley-Blackwell. Gellately, R. & Kiernan, B. (2003). The specter of genocide: mass murder in historical perspective. Cambridge, UK: Published by Cambridge University Press.

The Effect of Retention Interval on the Confidenceâ€Accuracy Relationship for Eyewitness Identification

Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 DOI 10. 1007/s10979-009-9192-x ORIGINAL ARTICLE The Effect of Retention Interval on the Confidence–Accuracy Relationship for Eyewitness Identification James Sauer ? Neil Brewer ? Tick Zweck ? Nathan Weber Published online: 22 July 2009 O American Psychology-Law Society/Division 41 of the American Psychological Association 2009 Abstract Recent research using a calibration approach indicates that eyewitness confidence assessments obtained immediately after a positive identification decision provide a useful guide as to the likely accuracy of the identification.This study extended research on the boundary conditions of the confidence–accuracy (CA) relationship by varying the retention interval between encoding and identification test. Participants (N = 1,063) viewed one of five different tar- gets in a community setting and attempted an identification from an 8-person target-present or -absent lineup either immediately or several week s later. Compared to the immediate condition, the delay condition produced greater overconfidence and lower diagnosticity.However, for choosers at both retention intervals there was a meaningful CA relationship and diagnosticity was much stronger at high than low confidence levels. Keywords Eyewitness identification Confidence–accuracy Retention interval Calibration Criminal justice systems often use eyewitness identifica- tion evidence when assessing the likely guilt of a suspect or defendant. Yet, the likelihood of eyewitness identification error is well documented by laboratory- and field-based research demonstrating that, when presented with a lineup J.Sauer N. Brewer (&) T. Zweck N. Weber School of Psychology, Flinders University, GPO Box 2100, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia e-mail: neil. [email  protected] edu. au Present Address: J. Sauer Department of Psychology, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth, UK and asked to make an identification decision, witnesses sometimes (a) misidentify innocent lineup members as the culprit or (b) fail to identify the culprit when (s)he is present in the lineup (Cutler & Penrod, 1995; Innocence Project, 2009; Pike, Brace, & Kynan, 2002; Wells et al. , 1998). Such dentification errors divert investigative attention from the actual culprit and are likely to under- mine the effectiveness of the criminal justice system. Their impact has motivated a substantial amount of research aimed at identifying markers capable of discriminating accurate from inaccurate identification decisions. Eyewitness confidence is one possible marker of iden- tification accuracy that has been used by forensic decision makers. Not only has confidence been endorsed by the U. S. Supreme Court as one of the criteria to be considered when assessing the likely accuracy of identification evidence (Neil v.Biggers, 1972) but there is also a substantial literature demonstrating that eyewitness confidence influences assessments of likely identification accuracy made by police officers, lawyers, jurors, and jury-eligible samples (e. g. , Bradfield & Wells, 2000; Brewer & Burke, 2002; Cutler, Penrod, & Stuve, 1988; Deffenbacher & Loftus, 1982; Lindsay, Wells, & Rumpel, 1981). Moreover, there are sound theoretical grounds for pre- dicting a meaningful confidence–accuracy (CA) relationship for eyewitness identification decisions, which are a form of recognition memory decision.A number of theories of decision making and confidence processing—such as signal detection theory (Egan, 1958; Green & Swets, 1966; Mac- millan & Creelman, 1991) and accumulator models of decision making and perceptual discrimination (Van Zandt, 2000; Vickers, 1979)—suggest a shared evidential basis for response and response confidence in recognition memory tasks. Both classes of theory hold that confidence stems from the same evidence that drives the decision-making ? 123 338 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?process and, consequentl y, conditions facilitating accurate responding (e. . , long exposure durations, focused atten- tion, short retention intervals) should also produce high confidence. Conversely, conditions that hinder accurate responding should also lead to decreased confidence. Although there have been repeated demonstrations of weak or, at best, modest, CA correlations (e. g. , Bothwell, Deffenbacher, & Brigham, 1987; Sporer, Penrod, Read, & Cutler, 1995), empirical support for the diagnostic utility of eyewitness identification confidence—under certain con- ditions—has grown (e. g. Brewer & Wells, 2006; Juslin, Olsson, & Winman, 1996; Lindsay, Nilsen, & Read, 2000; Lindsay, Read, & Sharma, 1998; Sauer, Brewer, & Wells, 2008; Sauerland & Sporer, 2009; Weber & Brewer, 2004). Continued research interest in the CA relationship has been stimulated by two lines of enquiry suggesting that the early correlational work underestimated the CA relationship. First, Lindsay et al. (2000, 1998) arg ued that the homo- geneity of encoding and testing conditions (e. g. , exposure duration, witnesses’ attention to the target stimulus, retention interval, etc. evident in most correlational investigations of the CA relationship for eyewitness iden- tification tasks restricts variation in the quality of participants’ memories for the target. Thus, variations in accuracy and confidence are constrained, and the CA relationship underestimated. Lindsay et al. demonstrated substantial CA correlations across participants making a positive identification when witnessing conditions were varied to produce changes in the quality of the witness’ memory for the target.Second, Juslin et al. (1996) argued that the point-biserial correlation provides only a limited perspective on the CA relationship, whereas an alternative approach—calibra- tion—provides (a) a more detailed representation of the CA relationship and (b) more forensically useful information. The cal ibration approach compares the objective and sub- jective probabilities of a response being correct, determining the proportion of correct responses at each confidence level (typically measured on 0–100% scale).Perfect calibration is obtained when, for example, 100% of all responses made with 100% confidence are accurate, 90% of all responses made with 90% confidence are accurate, etc. This informa- tion is typically plotted on a graph, with the resulting calibration function compared to the ideal function, to assess the CA relationship. In addition to visual inspection of the curve, the calibration approach incorporates a number of statistical tools for assessing the CA relation. First, the cal- ibration (C) statistic indexes the degree of correspondence between the subjective assessment (i. e. confidence) and the objective probability (i. e. , accuracy) of correct recognition, and varies from 0 (perfect calibration) to 1. To calculate the C statistic, the difference between proportion correct and confidence level is computed, and squared, for each confidence level. These values, each multiplied by the number of judgments at the respective confidence level, are then summed and divided by the total number of judgments in the sample. Second, the computation of an over/under- confidence (O/U) statistic indicates the extent to which participants are, generally, more or less confident than they are accurate.The O/U statistic is calculated by subtracting the mean accuracy from the mean confidence of the sample. The O/U statistic can range from -1 to 1, with negative and positive scores indicating underconfidence and overconfi- dence, respectively. Finally, resolution (like the CA correlation) assesses the extent to which confidence dis- criminates correct from incorrect decisions. The Normalized Resolution Index (NRI) ranges from 0 (no discrimination) to 1 (perfect discrimination).The forensic utility of the cali- bration approach, when compared to correlati on, lies in its indication of probable accuracy for each level of confidence. As Juslin et al. (1996) note, the knowledge that the CA correlation is, for example, . 28 does not help assess the accuracy of an individual identification made with 80% confidence. On the other hand, knowing that 80% (or 70, or 90%) of identifications made with 80% confidence are cor- rect provides a guide for assessing the likely reliability of an individual identification decision.Studies using the calibration approach have not only provided detailed information on the CA relationship but, in so doing, have also demonstrated robust CA relation- ships when participants positively identify a lineup member as the culprit (e. g. , Brewer & Wells, 2006; Juslin et al. , 1996; Sauerland & Sporer, 2009), provided confi- dence is assessed immediately after the identification is made (Bradfield, Wells, & Olson, 2002; Brewer, Weber, & Semmler, 2007). The reason for the poor CA relations typically observed for non- choosers remains unclear.However, it is well understood why delaying the assess- ment of confidence is harmful to the CA relation. As outlined above, the relationship between memory quality, confidence, and accuracy is fundamental to the CA rela- tionship. However, confidence can be shaped not only by memory quality but also by various social, environmental, and meta-cognitive influences (see Wells, 1993). As the influence of these non-memorial factors increases, the degree to which confidence reflects the evidential basis it shares with accuracy decreases and, in turn, the CA relation weakens.Research testing the boundary conditions for CA cali- bration is under way. The difference in CA relations for choosers and non-choosers, and the deleterious effects of delaying assessments of confidence on the CA relationship, are well documented. Brewer and Wells (2006) examined the effects on CA calibration of varying instructional bias, foil similarity, and target-absent base rates, while Weber and Brewer (2003) tested the effect of varying the 123 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 339 confidence scale on CA calibration in basic face recogni- tion tasks. The present study further probes the boundary conditions for CA calibration by investigating the effects of varying the retention interval between encoding and the identification test on the CA relationship. Retention interval is a variable of particular interest for three main reasons. First, witnesses to actual crimes com- monly experience delays ranging from hours to months between viewing an event and being asked to make an identification decision. For example, Pike et al. 2002) report UK survey data revealing a median delay of over 10 weeks between police requesting and administering a lineup, although they noted that more conservative esti- mates put the average delay at just over a month. Regardless, it seems safe to assume that the average retention interval for the witness (i. e. , between viewing the c rime and viewing the lineup) is longer. In contrast, retention intervals employed to date in laboratory-based investigations of CA calibration for eyewitness (e. g. , 15 min in Brewer & Wells, 2006) and face recognition memory tasks (e. . , 3–10 min in Weber & Brewer, 2003, 2004, 2006) are considerably shorter and less varied in range. Juslin et al. ’s (1996) CA calibration study provides an exception by employing 1 h and 1 week retention intervals, and their findings are addressed below. The emphasis placed on confidence by decision makers in the forensic setting makes understanding the effect of length- ened delays on the efficacy of confidence in discriminating accurate from inaccurate identification decisions a matter of forensic significance.Second, theories of recognition and recall memory function suggest that, in general, the quantity, quality, and/ or accessibility of information stored in memory decreases over time. This claim is supported by a large body of research literature demonstrating that, across a variety of memory task paradigms, increases in retention interval generally produce decreases in recognition and recall memory performance (e. g. , Deffenbacher, Bornstein, McGorty, & Penrod, 2008; Ebbinghaus, 1964; Schacter, 1999). Thus, variations in retention interval should produce variations in accuracy.While memory strength is the pro- posed basis for both confidence and accuracy (e. g. , Egan, 1958; Green & Swets, 1966; Macmillan & Creelman, 1991) and, hence, variations in memory strength should affect both components of the CA relationship, it is unclear whether the effects on confidence and accuracy will be equivalent. Previous research demonstrates that changes in accuracy are not always accompanied by equivalent changes in confidence (e. g. , Weber & Brewer, 2004) and, further, that various manipulations can influence confi- dence, and the CA association, independent of effects on accuracy (e. . , Busey, Tunnicliff, Loftus, & Loftus, 2000). Investigations of the CA relation for eyewitness recall memory suggest that repeated questioning produces con- fidence inflation (Shaw, 1996; Shaw & McClure, 1996). For recognition memory, providing post-identification feedback, encouraging witnesses to reflect on whether their encoding conditions were likely to facilitate or hinder identification accuracy, and having witnesses consider their behavior during the identification process all produce variations in the CA relation, without affecting accuracy (e. g. , Bradfield et al. 2002; Brewer, Keast, & Rishworth, 2002; Kassin, 1985; Kassin, Rigby, & Castillo, 1991). In sum, it is clear that despite the strong theoretical link between confidence, accuracy, and memory strength, non- memorial factors can lead to CA dissociation. Thus, while the effect of increased retention interval on memory strength (and accuracy) is predictable, the effect of increased retention interval on CA calibration is not. Third, while numero us studies have investigated the effect of varied retention interval on recognition and recall memory accuracy (see Deffenbacher et al. 2008 for a review), studies probing the effect of varied retention interval on the CA relationship are scarce. Lindsay et al. (1998) varied retention interval, but it was manipulated in conjunction with a number of other variables in an effort to exert a compounded effect on memory quality. Further, they assessed the CA relation using correlation and, thus, their findings do not allow specific predictions regarding CA calibration (see also Lindsay et al. , 1981). As men- tioned above, Juslin et al. varied retention interval and found no ifference in CA calibration for identifications made after retention intervals of 1 h and 1 week. However, Juslin et al. ’s investigation is limited in two important ways. First, their manipulation of retention interval exerted a negligible effect on accuracy (correct identification rates were . 69 and . 64 fo r the 1 h and 1 week conditions, respectively). Thus, there is no evidence that participants’ memories were challenged by the additional delay, and these findings are unable to speak to the effect of delay- induced memory degradation on CA calibration. Juslin et al. resented an additional CA calibration curve, based on a different dataset from that described in the article, which (a) combined data from a 1 week and 3 month retention interval condition and (b) suggested a meaningful CA relation in the upper half of the confidence scale. However, for three reasons, this curve is not informative regarding the effect of retention interval. First, the exper- imental methodology and data underpinning this curve remain (to our knowledge) unpublished. Second, the absence of any accuracy data precludes an assessment of any decline in memory associated with the increased retention interval.Third, derivation of a calibration curve given such a small sample required collapsing data acros s retention interval conditions, and no indication was given of the relevant contribution of data from each retention 123 340 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?interval condition. Thus, we have no way of knowing to what extent this curve reflects the influence of either the shorter or longer of the two retention intervals. Simply put, Juslin et al. ’s initial manipulation of retention interval was not strong enough to affect memory quality, and the introduction of the additional data did not overcome this limitation.Second, after presenting a lineup but prior to making an identification decision, Juslin et al. (1996) had participants rate their confidence that any lineup member was presented at encoding. Brewer et al. (2002) found that having par- ticipants consider encoding conditions prior to rating confidence improved CA calibration. In a similar way Juslin et al. ’s initial rating task may have aided calibration. For example, if a participant rates the likeli hood that a lineup member was present at encoding as high, (s)he is likely to pick and do so with high confidence.Alterna- tively, if (s)he rates this likelihood as low but still chooses, confidence (and accuracy) is likely to be low. This pre- decision rating task may have improved CA calibration. Further, other research suggests that encouraging witnesses to consider confidence prior to making an identification can alter the decision making process and decision accuracy (e. g. , Fleet, Brigham, & Bothwell, 1987). In addition to these two major limitations, two idiosyn- crasies in Juslin et al. ’s (1996) methodology may have affected the CA relation observed.First, Juslin et al. used a target-absent base rate of . 25, rather than the . 50 base rate typical of eyewitness CA calibration research (and used in this research). While there is no reason to assume a . 50 target-absent base rate in the applied setting (with the typ- ically used . 50 target-absent base rate perhaps re presenting a considerable overestimation), differences in the target- absent base rate affect CA calibration (Brewer & Wells, 2006). Second, the researchers provided instructions on calibration and interpretation of the confidence scale.Prior to eliciting confidence estimates, Juslin et al. informed participants that a positive identification accompanied by a confidence estimate of 0% amounted to a contradiction. While this logic may be sound, positive identifications are sometimes made with very low (even 0%) confidence, and this instruction may have influenced participants’ confi- dence estimates and, consequently, the CA relationship observed. Taken together, these differences are sufficient to raise doubts about the generalizability of Juslin et al. ’s findings.Specifically, given that accuracy was barely affected by the manipulation, and that the rating task and lower target-absent base rate may have enhanced calibra- tion and reduced underconfidence (cf. Brewer e t al. , 2002; Brewer & Wells, 2006), Juslin et al. ’s (1996) study does not represent an adequate test of the effect of increased reten- tion interval on CA calibration. CA calibration in Juslin et al. ’s shorter retention interval condition was already strong. Thus, any over-estimation of the CA relation resulting from Juslin et al. s methodology would most likely also manifest in the longer retention interval, increasing the likelihood of obtaining similar CA relations across conditions. CA calibration research in the eyewitness identification area is in its infancy. The paucity of research in this area is understandable given the large number of participants required to generate stable estimates of CA calibration. Indeed, most of what is currently understood in this area relies on laboratory research using a limited range of stimulus materials. Only one study has previously exam- ined CA calibration using a field study methodology (Sauerland & Sporer, 2009).The pres ent research advances understanding of the CA relationship in three main ways. First, we used the CA calibration approach to examine the effect of retention interval on the CA relation, contrasting the CA relation for a virtually immediate identification test with that for one conducted between 3 and 7 weeks after the encoding event (and producing lower identification accuracy). Second, we used five different sets of encoding and test stimuli and, third, we tested the robustness of the CA relation in a field setting that provided varied and more realistic encoding conditions (cf.Lindsay et al. , 1998). METHOD Design A 2 (retention interval: immediate test versus delayed test) 9 2 (target-presence: present versus absent), between- subjects design was used to test the effect of varied retention interval on the confidence–accuracy relationship using multiple target stimuli in a field setting. Participants A total of 1,063 (548 female) participants provided data for this research . Participant ages ranged from 15 to 85 (M = 29. 21, SD = 14. 33). A functional grasp of the Eng- lish language was the only prerequisite for participation. MaterialsPhotographs of the target were cropped to present the individual, from the shoulders up, against a plain white/ gray background, and were approximately 55 mm 9 55 mm in size. Non-target (i. e. , foil) photographs were selected from our laboratory’s large database using a match-description strategy, with foil selection requiring agreement between the researchers and the experimenter from each pair that the foils matched the target’s 123 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 341 ?description. In sum, five different sets of target-present and target-absent lineups were constructed.For each target, identical foils were used for target-present and -absent lineups. Target-absent lineups were created by replacing the target with another foil photograph. However, as dis- cussed in the ‘‘Resultsâ€℠¢Ã¢â‚¬â„¢ section, because the designation of individual foils as target-replacements was arbitrary, the target-replacement is not analogous to an innocent suspect. Procedure Ten female, third-year honors psychology students col- lected data as part of a work experience course-component. The 10 students split into pairs with one acting as the researcher and the other as the target.Targets were of either Caucasian or Mediterranean appearance. Data were collected at various locations ranging from on-campus to city streets to parkland areas. While the target remained out of sight, the researcher approached members of the public (individually) and asked if they would like to participate in a psychology experiment. If the individual agreed, the researcher signaled to her partner who moved into the participant’s view, and remained in view for 10 s. Targets were viewed at a pre-measured distance of 10 m, and participants were instructed to attend to the target for the full 10 s.Afte r encoding, participants were allocated to either an immediate or delayed testing condition. Data were obtained from 691 participants in the immediate condition and from 372 participants in the delayed condition (i. e. , only about 55% of participants approached in the delayed condition responded). Participants in the immediate con- dition were asked to perform an identification task. The researcher read the following instructions to the partici- pant: ‘‘I’m now going to ask you to try and pick the person you just saw out of a group of photographs on this sheet†¦ ’ The researcher then presented the participant with a laminated piece of A4 paper displaying eight, clearly numbered, color photographs organized into two rows of four faces. The instructions continued: ‘‘The person may or may not be present in the lineup. If you think the person is not present, please say ‘not present’. Please indicate the number of the person who is the person you have just viewed’’. The researcher then recorded the participant’s response, asked the participant to indicate their confidence in the accuracy of their response on an 11-point scale (0–100%), and collected some demographic information.Participants in the delayed condition provided an email address and were contacted approximately 18–21 days after encoding, and provided with a link to an online data collection system. Actual retention intervals ranged from 20 to 50 days (M = 23, SD = 5). When entered into the system, participant email addresses were matched to the relevant researcher/target pair to ensure that each partici- pant viewed the correct lineup for their target stimulus. Participants accessed the online system and were presented with instructions generally identical to those reported above.However, rather than indicating responses verbally, participants in the delayed condition made identification decisions by either (a) c licking the photo of the lineup member they believed to be the target, or (b) clicking a button labeled ‘‘Not Present’’ at the bottom of the screen. Similarly, participants entered their confidence estimate by clicking one of eleven on-screen buttons representing the levels of confidence indicated above. Participants in the delayed condition were asked for the same demographic information as those in the immediate condition.Target- presence was counterbalanced in both the immediate and delayed conditions to achieve an equal number of target- present and -absent trials. RESULTS Retention Interval and Accuracy Chi-square analyses performed on response accuracy for the delayed and immediate conditions found predictable effects of retention interval for both choosers, v2(1, N = 614) = 11. 59, p . 001, w = 0. 14, and non-choosers, v2(1, N = 449) = 13. 85, p. 001, w = 0. 18.In both cases, accuracy was greater in the immediate condition (62 and 82% for choosers a nd non-choosers, respectively) than in the delayed condition (47 and 66% for choosers and non- choosers, respectively). Thus, the effect of increased retention interval on identification accuracy was consistent with the expected reduction in memory quality. As found by Juslin et al. (1996) and Sauerland & Sporer (2009), accuracy rates for non-choosers were significantly higher than for choosers in both the immediate, v2(1, N = 691) = 32. 24, p . 001, w = 0. 22, and delayed condi- tions, v2(1, N = 372) = 13. 4, p . 001, w = 0. 19. The present non-chooser accuracy and diagnosticity data (see below) lend support to previous research demonstrating that lineup rejections can inform assessments of the likely guilt of a suspect (e. g. , Clark, Howell, & Davey, 2008; Wells & Olson, 2002). Retention Interval and the CA Relation To enhance the stability of the plotted CA calibration functions, confidence data were collapsed from the 11 initial confidence categories (i. e. , 0–100%) t o five (i. e. , 0– 20%, 30–40%, 50–60%, 70–80%, 90–100%) (see Brewer & Wells, 2006; Juslin et al. , 1996).Moreover, because foils are known in advance to be innocent, we excluded target- 123 342 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?present, foil identifications from our calibration analyses (see Brewer & Wells, 2006). However, as there was no actual police suspect in the target-absent lineups, all false identifications of foils from target-absent lineups were included in calibration analyses, a practice that necessarily inflates the degree of overconfidence. 1 Table 1 presents the distributions of confidence ratings for choosers and non-choosers, in the immediate and delayed conditions, according to identification response.Given the well-documented differences in the CA rela- tion for choosers and non-choosers, we present CA calibration analyses separately for these two groups (see Tables 1 and 2, and Fig. 1). In both retention interval conditio ns, meaningful CA relationships for choosers are apparent. Visual inspection of choosers’ CA calibration functions (Fig. 1) shows increasing accuracy as confidence increases for both retention intervals. Moreover, in the upper section of the confidence scale, the immediate and delayed condition curves are almost identical.While reli- ance on visual inspection may appear to lack rigor, the standard error bars for each confidence interval permit an estimation of the stability of the results obtained. Over- lapping standard error bars (evident for the two highest confidence intervals of the chooser curves) denote non- reliable differences between groups. Table 1 presents the diagnosticity ratios for each con- fidence category. Diagnosticity ratios indicate the likely reliability of an identification decision, in this case, according to the level of confidence expressed.Chooser diagnosticity ratios compare the likelihood that a guilty suspect will be identified to the likelihood that an innocent suspect will be identified. The procedure for separating suspect from foil identifications from target-absent lineups is complex. In contrast to the forensic setting, the labora- tory setting provides no basis for designating any particular member of a target-absent lineup as the suspect (cf. Brewer & Wells, 2006). Accordingly, we calculated target-absent suspect identification rates by dividing the total number of target-absent false identifications by the number of lineup members (i. e. , eight).Non-chooser diagnosticity ratios compare the probability that the witness responds not- present, given the target is not-present, to the probability that the witness responds not-present, given the target is present. Both retention interval conditions show increased diagnosticity at each successive confidence interval. Thus, when a suspect is identified, an increase in witness 1 Including only target-replacement identifications as false identifi- cations from target-absent lineups resulted in only 13 and 6% (in the immediate and delayed conditions, respectively) of all target-absent misidentifications being available for calibration analyses.Split over the five confidence intervals, these data is insufficient to provide stable estimates of calibration. Table 1 Diagnosticity ratios and number of responses (according to response type) for each confidence interval, for choosers and non- choosers in the immediate and delayed testing conditions ? Condition & response Confidence level (%) 0–20 30–40 50–60 70–80 90–100 Overall Immediate—choosers Correct 5 identification Foil identification 1 False identification 9 Overall 15 Diagnosticityratio 6. 68 SEDiagnosticity 2. 71 Delayed—choosers Correct 1 identificationFoil identification 5 False identification 9 Overall 15 Diagnosticity ratio 1. 56 SEDiagnosticity 1. 66 Immediate—non-choosers Correct rejection 6 Incorrect rejection 4 Overall 10 Diagnosticity ratio 1. 01 SEDiagnosticity 0. 57 Delayed—non-choosers 12 40 103 90 250 6 18 12 4 41 13 31 43 18 114 31 89 158 112 405 8. 87 11. 08 18. 74 37. 79 17. 80 2. 40 1. 91 2. 56 8. 61 1. 49 5 16 39 38 99 5 8 9 3 30 11 25 24 10 79 21 49 72 51 208 4. 02 6. 28 13. 63 20. 47 10. 12 1. 83 1. 52 2. 63 6. 23 1. 11 11 42 91 84 234 2 10 22 14 52 13 52 113 98 286 4. 68 3. 91 4. 23 6. 35 4. 44 5. 91 1. 31 0. 89 1. 71 0. 0 Correct rejection Incorrect rejection Overall Diagnosticity ratio SEDiagnosticity 5 10 25 41 27 108 2 9 16 14 14 55 7 19 41 55 41 163 1. 48 1. 01 1. 23 2. 79 2. 87 1. 92 1. 62 0. 35 0. 30 0. 74 0. 76 0. 25 ? confidence is accompanied by an increase in the probability that the identified suspect is guilty. There are, however, some differences apparent between the two retention interval conditions for choosers. A modified jackknife procedure (Koriat, Lichtenstein, & Fischhoff, 1980; Mosteller & Tukey, 1968) was performed on the C, O/U, and NRI statistics obtained for each rete ntion interval condition.The jackknife procedure involves repeated calculation of each of the three statistics above, with each calculation omitting data from a different, individual participant. As many calculations are run as there are participants. This permits the calculation of mean and standard error data (Table 2) for the statistics obtained which, in turn, allows an assessment of differences in the relevant measures between groups. While these jackknife mean and standard error data cannot be subjected to inferential testing, they are intended to allow researchers to ? 123Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 343 100 80 60 40 20 Table 2 Calibration (C), overconfidence (O/U), and Normalized Resolution Index (NRI) statistics, for choosers and non-choosers, in the immediate and delayed testing conditions Measure Statistic C Value Jackknife SE O/U Value Jackknife SE NRI Value Jackknife SE Choosers Non-choosers Immediate Delay Immediate Delay 0. 01 0. 04 0. 00 0. 01 0. 09 0. 1 9 0. 02 0. 03 0. 10 0. 17 0. 03 0. 05 0. 03 0. 04 0. 01 0. 02 -0. 08 0. 01 0. 02 0. 04 0. 02 0. 02 0. 02 0. 02 ?Immediate Choosers Delayed Choosers 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 n the immediate condition. This produces differences between conditions in three measures of the CA relation: the visual appearance of calibration function, the O/U statistic, and the NRI statistic. First, the calibration curve for the immediate condition flattens out in the lower half of the confidence scale, rather than following the ideal func- tion. Further, the curve for the immediate condition shifts from overconfidence in the higher confidence intervals to underconfidence in the lower confidence intervals, a pattern not observed in the delayed condition.In addition to pro- ducing a visual flattening of the curve, this transition from overconfidence to underconfidence has important effects on two of the statistical measures of the CA relationship. It drives the immediate condition O/U statistic toward its mid-po int (i. e. , 0). Consequently, although the immediate condition curve exhibits noticeable underconfidence and overconfidence at the relevant extremes of the confidence scale, this is not reflected in the O/U statistic for that condition, thereby exaggerating the apparent difference in overconfidence between conditions.Finally, as evidenced by the NRI statistics (Table 2), it reduces the overall level of discrimination provided by confidence in the immediate condition. This discrepancy between conditions at the lower confidence extremes is addressed further in the ‘‘Discussion’’. The second difference between the CA relations for choosers in the delayed and immediate conditions is evident in the diagnosticity ratios reported for each confidence interval (Table 1).Consistent with the reported overall drop in identification accuracy associated with the delayed con- dition, the degree of diagnosticity at each confidence interval is greater in the immediate than delayed condition. Further, although no difference in overconfidence is appar- ent between conditions in the higher confidence brackets, the difference in diagnosticity persists. Nonetheless, as outlined above, the finding of increased diagnosticity with increased confidence is consistent (for choosers) across conditions.In sum, the CA relations observed for choosers in the two retention interval conditions differ in terms of the Confidence 100 80 60 40 20 ?Immediate Non-Choosers Delayed Non-Choosers 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 Confidence Fig. 1 Confidence–accuracy (CA) calibration curves for choosers (upper panel) and non-choosers (lower panel) in the delayed and immediate testing conditions. Error bars represent standard errors draw inferences in conditions where data violate assump- tions of conventional inferential testing techniques (Sheskin, 2004).Because the jackknife means replicated the original values in every case, only the original values are reported. Inspection of the calibration functions, together with the O/U statistics (Table 2), suggests greater overconfidence for the delayed compared to the immediate condition. However, two aspects of the calibration information justify qualification of this general observation. First, for the two highest confidence categories, the standard error bars for the two functions overlap suggesting no meaningful dif- ference in over/underconfidence.The applied value of this similarity at the higher confidence intervals is addressed in the ‘‘Discussion’’. Second, the overall difference in over- confidence between conditions is, in fact, exaggerated by underconfidence in the lower half of the calibration curve 123 % Correct % Correct 344 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?general overconfidence and discriminability, due primarily to the trend toward underconfidence at low confidence levels in the immediate condition. However, in the upper half of the confidence scale, the conditions pr oduce highly similar calibration functions.For non-choosers, both retention interval conditions produced the typically weak CA relations observed in previous CA calibration research. Further, any variations in diagnosticity between confidence levels were small and unsystematic in both conditions. While this absence of resolution might normally be taken as an indication that a confident rejection should not be given any special status, this needs to be considered in the context of accuracy rates for rejections usually being high. Thus, from an applied perspective, provided the conditions are such that non-chooser accuracy is high (e. . , unbiased lineup instructions, good encoding conditions), it is important to note that a highly confident rejection is as good a guide to (in)accuracy as a confident ID. Importantly also, an unconfident rejection is also likely to be as accu- rate as a confident ID. The CA correlation patterns are generally in line with previous research (e. g. , Lind say et al. , 1998; Sporer et al. , 1995). CA correlations of moderate strength were found for choosers in both the immediate (r (405) = 0. 32, p . 001) and delayed conditions (r (209) = 0. 41, p . 001).While these values lie toward the high end of typically reported CA correlations, the relationships are still only moderate in size. Consistent with previous research, correlations for non-choosers were weak and non-significant in both the immediate (r (286) = . 09, ns) and delayed conditions (r (163) = . 06, ns). DISCUSSION While the dominant perspective in eyewitness identifica- tion research has been that the CA relationship is, at best, a weak one, recent research—underpinned by theoretically motivated changes in design and analysis techniques—has demonstrated meaningful CA relationships when certain pre-conditions are met.The present study extends this research, providing an important test of the boundary conditions of the CA relation. Variation in retention inter val is (a) theoretically linked to variation in memory quality (and, thus, confidence and accuracy), (b) typical in the forensic setting, and (c) atypical in psychological investigations of the CA relation. Further, the emphasis placed on confidence when assessing the reliability of identification evidence in the forensic setting makes the effect of varied retention interval on the CA relationship an issue of applied and theoretical relevance.The most striking feature of our examination of the effect of retention interval on the CA relationship is the consistency of the findings across retention interval con- ditions. Consistent with previous calibration research in the eyewitness and face recognition paradigms (e. g. , Brewer & Wells, 2006; Juslin et al. , 1996; Sauerland & Sporer, 2009; Weber & Brewer, 2003, 2004, 2006), confidence and accuracy were meaningfully related for choosers in both the immediate and delayed conditions, particularly in the upper half of the confidence scal e.Further, both conditions show systematic increases in diagnosticity with increased witness confidence. Compared to the immediate condition, the delayed condition demonstrated an increase in general overconfidence and a decrease in the absolute levels of diagnosticity. However, such differences are equally likely to occur when retention interval is held constant but target stimuli or instructional bias are varied (e. g. , Brewer & Wells, 2006).Of primary importance is the finding that the fundamental nature of the CA relationship, as evidenced by the shape of the calibration functions and the systematic relationship between confidence and diagnosticity, did not vary meaningfully between conditions. As Bruck and Poole (2002) note, albeit it in a different context, when assessing consistency across conditions, patterns of findings are often more informative than individual numbers. While our conclusions may be similar to those of Juslin et al. 1996) in that CA calibration was still e vident when the retention interval was extended, our findings add sig- nificantly to our understanding of the effect of retention interval on the CA relation. Whereas there was no evidence that Juslin et al. ’s retention interval manipulation affected memory strength, our manipulation clearly affected rec- ognition memory performance and yet evidence of CA calibration persisted. Moreover, CA calibration was evi- dent at the longer retention interval in our study, despite the absence of several methodological features contained in Juslin et al. s research that may have buttressed the CA calibration detected at their longer retention interval. This suggests that these idiosyncrasies were not sufficient to affect the CA association. Additionally, by providing data from a field setting using multiple sets of encoding and test materials, our study provides an important pointer to the likely generality of the above conclusions. The improved diagnosticity in both retention interval conditions evident at the upper confidence levels has significant forensic implications.Highly confident identi- fications, when compared to those made with low confidence, are likely to have a greater impact on police investigations and jury decision making. For example, in the absence of other compelling evidence, police are more likely to proceed with a case given a highly confident identification than given an identification made with low confidence. Further, compared to an identification made with low confidence, an identification made with high confidence is likely to be more persuasive in the 123 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 345 courtroom, and thus exert a more pronounced effect on juror assessments of likely guilt. Thus, it is reassuring that the identification decisions likely to exert the greatest influence in criminal justice system are those for which (a) diagnosticity is greatest and (b) there was no significant variation in CA relationship associated with inc reased retention interval. We emphasize here, of course, that we are talking only about relationships detected when confi- dence was measured and recorded immediately after the identification, and not when opportunities for influencing confidence judgments had occurred.A potentially interesting difference between the CA relations obtained in the two conditions presents in the lower half of the confidence scale for the chooser curves. As previously outlined, while the immediate condition curve exhibited underconfidence in the lower confidence levels, the delayed condition curve maintained its resem- blance to the ideal function (i. e. , low confidence ratings were accompanied by equivalently poor identification performance). As noted earlier, confidence judgments may be shaped not only by memory strength but also by various non-memorial factors.It may be the case that, because the immediate condition provided virtually no time for the memory trace to degrade, very low confidence esti mates in this condition reflected the influence of misleading meta- cognitive inferences. In contrast, the delayed condition allowed for significantly greater degradation in memory trace, and, consequently, a greater drop in identification accuracy than did the immediate condition. In the delayed condition, very low confidence was perhaps more likely to reflect poor memory quality and, consequently, predict very poor performance.Thus, in this condition, confidence and accuracy corresponded more closely at the lower confidence levels, and the overall level of confidence-based discrimination increased (as evidenced by the NRI statis- tics). The improved resolution associated with the longer retention interval in the present study supports claims made by Lindsay et al. (2000, 1998) that the CA relation (and, in particular, resolution) is likely to be most evident in con- ditions that produce greatest variability in witnesses’ memory strength.However, given the low number of data points for these confidence categories, any conclusions must be tentative. Moreover, from an applied perspective, the data clearly show that low confidence identifications are associated with low accuracy (regardless of the exis- tence of over- or underconfidence). We should note three features of this study that might possibly have influenced the pattern of results obtained. First, despite email reminders to participants in the delay condition, there was still significant attrition.If it turns out that those conscientious enough to respond were also more conscientious—and, importantly, effective—when deter- mining confidence judgments, then it is conceivable that the strength of the CA relation is overestimated in our delay condition. However, we know of no evidence that could sustain an argument either way on this issue. Second, our retention interval manipulation was confounded with method of responding. Participants in the immediate test condition provided their r esponses during face-to-face interactions with the researcher, while delayed condition participants responded via computer.As previously noted, social influence can undermine the confidence–accuracy relationship. However, given (a) the similarity of CA rela- tionships evident between conditions in this experiment and (b) the similarity in CA relationships between the imme- diate condition in this experiment and previous work using similar (i. e. , relatively short though not immediate) reten- tion intervals and non-face-to-face responding (Brewer & Wells, 2006; Weber & Brewer, 2003, 2004, 2006), there is no reason to believe that method of responding exerted a significant effect on the results obtained.Third, for ethical reasons the encoded event in our field study did not involve a crime. Whether this might influence the CA relationship is also not known, though there is no obvious reason why this variable should interact with retention interval. What we do know, of course, is that the most reliable determinant of variations in the degree of over/underconfidence is task difficulty (see Brewer, 2006; Weber & Brewer, 2004), with our various stimuli providing tasks of sufficient difficulty to produce over- rather than under-confidence and, predict- ably, greater overconfidence in the delay condition.In sum, this research asked: Does an increase in retention interval undermine the meaningful CA relationships reported in recent research? These results suggest not, at least not for retention intervals in the range used here. For choosers in both the delayed and immediate conditions, increased confidence was associated with increased proba- ble accuracy. While this finding is encouraging, one important caveat is required. Although retention interval did not affect the CA relationship observed, many factors capable of distorting the CA relation over time in the forensic setting (e. g. confirming feedback/interaction with co-witnesses, repeated post-event quest ioning) were not addressed in our approach. It would be premature to suggest that, in the forensic setting, confidence-based discrimina- tion of accuracy will not ever vary with increased retention interval. Simply increasing retention does not, by itself, seem to dampen the CA relation, but increased retention intervals may be associated with increased exposure to other factors likely to affect the relationship between con- fidence and accuracy. Moreover, it should be noted that retention intervals long enough to reduce identification accuracy to chance levels (i. . , likely much longer than in this study) would constrain variation in accuracy, reducing the extent to which confidence can discriminate accurate from inaccurate identification decisions. 123 346 Law Hum Behav (2010) 34:337–347 ?Acknowledgments This research was supported by grant DP0556876 from the Australian Research Council and a Flinders Research Grant. We are grateful to Monica Beshara, Megan Cant, Danielle Chant, Kelly Ferber, Suzana Freegard, Caitlin Hithcock, Michaela O’Keefe, Lucy Pillay, Carla Raphael, Nancy Whitaker, and Anneke Woods for their assistance with data collection. REFERENCESBothwell, R. K. , Deffenbacher, K. A. , & Brigham, J. C. (1987). Correlations of eyewitness accuracy and confidence: Optimality hypothesis revisited. Journal of Applied Psychology, 72, 691– 695. Bradfield, A. L. , & Wells, G. L. (2000). 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